The written word has not always existed in the vanilla paper, rich ink, neatly-bound codices, which today, we call books. Whether taking the form of a clay tablet, scroll, or codex, the written word has facilitated the rapid spread of knowledge. When discussing the field of science, the foundation of scientific knowledge hinges in the ability to disseminate new findings and hypotheses through literature. This semester, I am in a unique position as I sit along the intersection of two classes directly relevant to this article: the History of the Book taught by David Stern and the Neurobiology of Behavior taught by Jeff W. Lichtman and Kathleen Quast. Traversing centuries of time and breaching both the sciences and humanities, this article will attempt to skim the surface of the profound impacts of the book on the brain and the brain on the book.
One of the very first groundbreaking arguments connecting neuroscience with human nature was from the Greek physician, Herophilus, also named the “Father of Anatomy” for his reputation as a renowned scholar. In the third century, Herophilus was one of the first anatomists to perform dissections of the human body during the brief period when it was legal (Heinrich Von Staden, 2007). He paved the way for new discoveries of human anatomy and proposed that ventricles within the brain were the “seat of the soul, intelligence and mental functions'' (Pearce, 2013). Hippocrates, another Greek physician who is known as the “Father of Medicine,” similarly argued that the brain was involved in intelligence, but also “human sense.” These arguments were revolutionary—prior to Herophilus and Hippocrates, Ancient Egyptians had provided the most widespread conception of human identity, arguing that it was contained in the heart (Mark, 2017).
These contrasting developments in neuroscientific thought—the conceptions of human essence by the Greeks versus the Ancient Egyptians—each emerged through separate ‘material conduits.’ Herophilus’ and Hippocrates’ ideas were recorded in scrolls (Pearce, 2013). The city of Alexandria served as a hub for many famous Greek physicians and was home to a library of over 7,000 scrolls, the largest collection of its time (Pearce, 2013). Rather than scrolls, papyrus codices dated from the 3rd and 4th century, which are now known famously as The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, were uncovered in the early 19th-late 20th century by two papyrologists, Bernard Pyne Grenfell and Arthur Surridge Hunt (“Oxyrhynchus - the History of the Archaeological Site,” 2022). This indicates that Ancient Egyptians may have been disseminating this pre-neuroscientific knowledge in the codex form we are now more familiar with today.
Despite these early connections between the brain and human nature (and the division between scroll and codex during this time period), neuroscience has only recently emerged as an individual field. Often cited as the ‘Father of Neuroscience,’ Santiago Ramón y Cajal is credited for coining the Neuron Doctrine, which states that individual neurons form the basis of the nervous system (Parrish, 2013). At this point in history (late 19th century), the print industry had already revolutionized the way in which knowledge was spread. Earlier on in the print revolution, we see a domestication and commodification of the book as it becomes more accessible to the laity, and thus, scientific findings, such as those by Ramón y Cajal, become common knowledge significantly faster.
The Harvard Art Museum’s special exhibit, Dare to Know: Prints and Drawings in the Age of Enlightenment, which also features early prints of the brain and neuroanatomy, touches on the impact of new science books and their creation and dissemination of learning and knowledge. While focused on the Enlightenment, many of the ideas of the exhibit can be carried over to the late 19th and early 20th century during which neuroscience takes off as a formal field of inquiry. Curated by Elizabeth M. Rudy and Kristel Smentek, the exhibit notes how “new concepts in every realm of intellectual inquiry were communicated not only through text and speech, but in prints and drawings that gave ideas concrete form” which were then circulated widely, spreading visual information to “dispersed viewers” (Rudy & Smentek, 2022). Ramón y Cajal is particularly known for his drawings of the human brain and neurons, which are groundbreaking in their detail and accuracy. During this time, we see the advancement of illustrations—the most significant being the development of lithography. As stated by Miguel Robles in his paper on the early drawings of Cajal, “this technique enabled the publishing of graphic information in colour” (2019). From the printing of books on natural history, archaeology, and other sciences at the time, there was a need to produce colored images cheaply (Raven, 2020). With lithography, Cajal was able to create histological images with striking detail.
The history of the book has been instrumental in reflecting upon the history of the brain—for the dissemination of neuroscientific knowledge, preservation of findings, and inspiration of both brain scientists and the general public. The book as we know it today is an immensely powerful tool, and the relationship between the book and the brain only further affirms this.
About the Author
Sasha Tunsiricharoengul is a sophomore at Harvard College concentrating in Neuroscience with a secondary in Comparative Literature.
References
One of the very first groundbreaking arguments connecting neuroscience with human nature was from the Greek physician, Herophilus, also named the “Father of Anatomy” for his reputation as a renowned scholar. In the third century, Herophilus was one of the first anatomists to perform dissections of the human body during the brief period when it was legal (Heinrich Von Staden, 2007). He paved the way for new discoveries of human anatomy and proposed that ventricles within the brain were the “seat of the soul, intelligence and mental functions'' (Pearce, 2013). Hippocrates, another Greek physician who is known as the “Father of Medicine,” similarly argued that the brain was involved in intelligence, but also “human sense.” These arguments were revolutionary—prior to Herophilus and Hippocrates, Ancient Egyptians had provided the most widespread conception of human identity, arguing that it was contained in the heart (Mark, 2017).
These contrasting developments in neuroscientific thought—the conceptions of human essence by the Greeks versus the Ancient Egyptians—each emerged through separate ‘material conduits.’ Herophilus’ and Hippocrates’ ideas were recorded in scrolls (Pearce, 2013). The city of Alexandria served as a hub for many famous Greek physicians and was home to a library of over 7,000 scrolls, the largest collection of its time (Pearce, 2013). Rather than scrolls, papyrus codices dated from the 3rd and 4th century, which are now known famously as The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, were uncovered in the early 19th-late 20th century by two papyrologists, Bernard Pyne Grenfell and Arthur Surridge Hunt (“Oxyrhynchus - the History of the Archaeological Site,” 2022). This indicates that Ancient Egyptians may have been disseminating this pre-neuroscientific knowledge in the codex form we are now more familiar with today.
Despite these early connections between the brain and human nature (and the division between scroll and codex during this time period), neuroscience has only recently emerged as an individual field. Often cited as the ‘Father of Neuroscience,’ Santiago Ramón y Cajal is credited for coining the Neuron Doctrine, which states that individual neurons form the basis of the nervous system (Parrish, 2013). At this point in history (late 19th century), the print industry had already revolutionized the way in which knowledge was spread. Earlier on in the print revolution, we see a domestication and commodification of the book as it becomes more accessible to the laity, and thus, scientific findings, such as those by Ramón y Cajal, become common knowledge significantly faster.
The Harvard Art Museum’s special exhibit, Dare to Know: Prints and Drawings in the Age of Enlightenment, which also features early prints of the brain and neuroanatomy, touches on the impact of new science books and their creation and dissemination of learning and knowledge. While focused on the Enlightenment, many of the ideas of the exhibit can be carried over to the late 19th and early 20th century during which neuroscience takes off as a formal field of inquiry. Curated by Elizabeth M. Rudy and Kristel Smentek, the exhibit notes how “new concepts in every realm of intellectual inquiry were communicated not only through text and speech, but in prints and drawings that gave ideas concrete form” which were then circulated widely, spreading visual information to “dispersed viewers” (Rudy & Smentek, 2022). Ramón y Cajal is particularly known for his drawings of the human brain and neurons, which are groundbreaking in their detail and accuracy. During this time, we see the advancement of illustrations—the most significant being the development of lithography. As stated by Miguel Robles in his paper on the early drawings of Cajal, “this technique enabled the publishing of graphic information in colour” (2019). From the printing of books on natural history, archaeology, and other sciences at the time, there was a need to produce colored images cheaply (Raven, 2020). With lithography, Cajal was able to create histological images with striking detail.
The history of the book has been instrumental in reflecting upon the history of the brain—for the dissemination of neuroscientific knowledge, preservation of findings, and inspiration of both brain scientists and the general public. The book as we know it today is an immensely powerful tool, and the relationship between the book and the brain only further affirms this.
About the Author
Sasha Tunsiricharoengul is a sophomore at Harvard College concentrating in Neuroscience with a secondary in Comparative Literature.
References
- Von Staden, Heinrich. (2007). Herophilus: The Art of Medicine in Early Alexandria; Edition, Translation and Essays. Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press.
- Oxyrhynchus - The history of the archaeological site. (2022). Ub.edu. http://www.ub.edu/visitavirtual/visita-virtual-oxirrinc/la-missio-oxirrinc.php?idi=EN
- Mark, J. J. (2017). The Soul in Ancient Egypt. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1023/the-soul-in-ancient-egypt/
- Parrish, M. (2013). Santiago Ramon y Cajal: “The Father of Neuroscience” - Brain Connection. Brain Connection.
- Pearce, J. M. S. (2013). The Neuroanatomy of Herophilus. European Neurology, 69(5), 292–295. https://doi.org/10.1159/000346232
- Raven, James. (2020). The Oxford Illustrated History of the Book. Oxford University Press.
- Robles, M. (2019). The early drawings and prints of Santiago Ramón y Cajal: a visual epistemology of the neurosciences. ResearchGate.
- Rudy, M. Elizabeth and Smentek, Kristel. (2022). Dare to Know: An Introduction | Harvard Art Museums. Harvardartmuseums.org; Harvard Art Museums.
