Stigmatized Science: How Gender Biases Surrounding Menstruation Hinder the Advancement of Novel Neurological Therapies
Neha Sharma
A multitude of cultures around the world negatively associate menstruation with pollution and dirt (Monica et al., 2022). This stigma has not only impeded women’s rights (Bobel et al., 2020) but has also hindered academia’s proliferation of novel menstrual-blood derived stem cell therapies. Menstrual blood-derived stem cells (MenSCs) represent a promising area of research that is widely overlooked and underestimated due to gender biases, appearing in only 0.25% of all MSC (Mesenchymal stromal cell) research between 2008 to 2020 (Monica et al., 2022). MenSCs are a type of (MSC), which are cells that can differentiate into a variety of different cell types, including bone, fat, muscle, and cartilage (mesodermal lineages). Unlike other MSCs, however, stem cells produced by menstrual blood are not only applicable to anything from neural and cardiac tissue repair but also offer a great non-invasive, renewable source of stem cells (Liu et al., 2019). Furthermore, they possess a high proliferation rate, pluripotent-like characteristics, and stable genetic characteristics, allowing for the potential of new medical therapies that are unmatched by any other stem cell source (Chen et al., 2019). In contrast, other types of MSCs have numerous problems tied to them compared to MenSCs: limited potency, ethical issues, invasivity, and limitations of donors. Given their capabilities, MenSCs may hold the key to breakthroughs that have long eluded the regenerative science field, thus making their investigation essential.
Pluripotency, or the capacity a stem cell has to differentiate into different cell types, is a key factor in determining the effectiveness of a stem cell. Technically, MSCs are multipotent, and can only differentiate into a limited amount of cell tissue types while pluripotent cells can give rise to any cell type except embryonic tissues. When an MSC can differentiate into a variety of different tissue types, it expands the amount of possible therapies it could produce, thus making MSCs that exhibit more pluripotent-like characteristics like MenSCs, more valuable. MSCs have the potential to differentiate into various mesodermal lineages, yet most can only partially differentiate into neurons (with the help of chemical inducers as they don’t naturally express markers associated with neural stem cells), glial-like cells, and endothelial cells (Ghorbani et al., 2017). However, MenSCs can differentiate into mesodermal lineages, ectodermal lineages (neuronal and glial-like cells), and endodermal lineages because they naturally express Oct-4, Sox2, and Nanog, which are core transcription factors in pluripotency that are rarely expressed in regular MSCs (Gargett et al., 2015; Khanmohamamadi et al., 2012). Furthermore, they are able to differentiate into neuron-like cells with higher efficiency and less chemical induction due to their expression of N-cadherin while also being found to secrete BDNFs and NGF (Liu et al., 2018). Their potential for the creation of fast and effective neuronal cells is remarkable, emphasizing the need for academia to begin researching this topic further.
As of 2023, two of the leading causes of death in the United States of America are Alzheimer’s disease and stroke (Murphy et al., 2024). MenSCs have the potential to not only mitigate the effects of neurological illnesses but also serve as a promising cell source for future organoids that can be used to study their disease development and test new therapies. In Alzheimer’s disease, they are shown to decrease the concentration of amyloid-beta plaques and tau hyperphosphorylation while also being observed to increase the expression of Aβ-degrading enzymes (Chen et al., 2019). Furthermore, AD mice showed improvements in spatial learning characteristics and memory. MenSCs can also target chronic inflammation caused by microglia activation via the reduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines, thus creating a better environment for neurons. Additionally, their ability to secrete BDNFs and NGFs encourages neurogenesis, decreases apoptosis, and enhances synaptic plasticity. Similarly, these same attributes of MenSCs can also aid in stroke recovery, as vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs) and BDNFs aid in new neural connections, which are crucial for stroke rehabilitation (Chen et al., 2019). In this case, MSCs share similar capabilities with MenSCs but possess ethical limitations that inhibit academia’s ability to create a larger impact in the regenerative sciences field.
MSCs are derived from a handful of donors via bone marrow extraction and surgical removal of adipose tissue. These are extremely invasive and pose a risk for donors (Musial-Wysocka et al., 2019). Additionally, half of the MSCs harvested become inadequate for use just four hours after bone marrow extraction (Elboghdady et al., 2015). Furthermore, traditional MSCs lose potency as the donor ages, so acquiring them from younger individuals poses another ethical consideration (Heyman et al., 2025). However, MenSCs pose no risk or harm to the donor, do not call for surgical intervention, and can be acquired periodically (Chen et al., 2019). Yet, despite all of these advantages, they are underutilized.
Historically, research has centered around the male perspective, leading to a biased scientific community that mirrors the world culturally in its views of the menstrual cycle and women. This shows how completely non-evidence culturally based associations of the menstrual cycle being dirty and impure are affecting what should be completely scientific-based communities (Manica et al., 2022). Not only has this led to fewer clinical trials and less funding, but also an absence of awareness in mainstream discussions. Stigmatizing female biology is not just a problem about equity; it slows down innovation and harms those who stand to benefit the most, such as people with stroke or neurodegenerative diseases. Only a systemic change in academia and its collective perceptions about the impurities of female biology can pave the way for meaningful advancements in both scientific research and equitable healthcare. Thus, if we continue stigmatizing menstruation, we are doing more than just perpetuating gender biases: we are delaying life-saving treatments for millions.
About the Author
Neha Sharma ('30) is an incoming freshman at Harvard College concentrating in Neuroscience.
References
Pluripotency, or the capacity a stem cell has to differentiate into different cell types, is a key factor in determining the effectiveness of a stem cell. Technically, MSCs are multipotent, and can only differentiate into a limited amount of cell tissue types while pluripotent cells can give rise to any cell type except embryonic tissues. When an MSC can differentiate into a variety of different tissue types, it expands the amount of possible therapies it could produce, thus making MSCs that exhibit more pluripotent-like characteristics like MenSCs, more valuable. MSCs have the potential to differentiate into various mesodermal lineages, yet most can only partially differentiate into neurons (with the help of chemical inducers as they don’t naturally express markers associated with neural stem cells), glial-like cells, and endothelial cells (Ghorbani et al., 2017). However, MenSCs can differentiate into mesodermal lineages, ectodermal lineages (neuronal and glial-like cells), and endodermal lineages because they naturally express Oct-4, Sox2, and Nanog, which are core transcription factors in pluripotency that are rarely expressed in regular MSCs (Gargett et al., 2015; Khanmohamamadi et al., 2012). Furthermore, they are able to differentiate into neuron-like cells with higher efficiency and less chemical induction due to their expression of N-cadherin while also being found to secrete BDNFs and NGF (Liu et al., 2018). Their potential for the creation of fast and effective neuronal cells is remarkable, emphasizing the need for academia to begin researching this topic further.
As of 2023, two of the leading causes of death in the United States of America are Alzheimer’s disease and stroke (Murphy et al., 2024). MenSCs have the potential to not only mitigate the effects of neurological illnesses but also serve as a promising cell source for future organoids that can be used to study their disease development and test new therapies. In Alzheimer’s disease, they are shown to decrease the concentration of amyloid-beta plaques and tau hyperphosphorylation while also being observed to increase the expression of Aβ-degrading enzymes (Chen et al., 2019). Furthermore, AD mice showed improvements in spatial learning characteristics and memory. MenSCs can also target chronic inflammation caused by microglia activation via the reduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines, thus creating a better environment for neurons. Additionally, their ability to secrete BDNFs and NGFs encourages neurogenesis, decreases apoptosis, and enhances synaptic plasticity. Similarly, these same attributes of MenSCs can also aid in stroke recovery, as vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs) and BDNFs aid in new neural connections, which are crucial for stroke rehabilitation (Chen et al., 2019). In this case, MSCs share similar capabilities with MenSCs but possess ethical limitations that inhibit academia’s ability to create a larger impact in the regenerative sciences field.
MSCs are derived from a handful of donors via bone marrow extraction and surgical removal of adipose tissue. These are extremely invasive and pose a risk for donors (Musial-Wysocka et al., 2019). Additionally, half of the MSCs harvested become inadequate for use just four hours after bone marrow extraction (Elboghdady et al., 2015). Furthermore, traditional MSCs lose potency as the donor ages, so acquiring them from younger individuals poses another ethical consideration (Heyman et al., 2025). However, MenSCs pose no risk or harm to the donor, do not call for surgical intervention, and can be acquired periodically (Chen et al., 2019). Yet, despite all of these advantages, they are underutilized.
Historically, research has centered around the male perspective, leading to a biased scientific community that mirrors the world culturally in its views of the menstrual cycle and women. This shows how completely non-evidence culturally based associations of the menstrual cycle being dirty and impure are affecting what should be completely scientific-based communities (Manica et al., 2022). Not only has this led to fewer clinical trials and less funding, but also an absence of awareness in mainstream discussions. Stigmatizing female biology is not just a problem about equity; it slows down innovation and harms those who stand to benefit the most, such as people with stroke or neurodegenerative diseases. Only a systemic change in academia and its collective perceptions about the impurities of female biology can pave the way for meaningful advancements in both scientific research and equitable healthcare. Thus, if we continue stigmatizing menstruation, we are doing more than just perpetuating gender biases: we are delaying life-saving treatments for millions.
About the Author
Neha Sharma ('30) is an incoming freshman at Harvard College concentrating in Neuroscience.
References
- Bobel, C., & Fahs, B. (2020). The messy politics of menstrual activism. In C. Bobel, I. T. Winkler, B. Fahs, et al. (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of critical menstruation studies (Chapter 71). Palgrave Macmillan. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK565607/ https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-0614-7_71
- Chen, L., Qu, J., & Xiang, C. (2019). The multi-functional roles of menstrual blood-derived stem cells in regenerative medicine. Stem Cell Research & Therapy, 10(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13287-018-1105-9
- Elboghdady, I., Hassanzadeh, H., Stein, B. E., & An, H. S. (2015). Controversies and potential risk of mesenchymal stem cells application. Seminars in Spine Surgery, 27(2), 103–106. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.semss.2015.03.007
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- Heyman, E., Olenic, M., De Vlieghere, E., De Smet, S., Devriendt, B., Thorrez, L., & De Schauwer, C. (2025). Donor age and breed determine mesenchymal stromal cell characteristics. Stem Cell Research & Therapy, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13287-025-04236-2
- Khanmohammadi, M., Khanjani, S., Bakhtyari, M. S., Zarnani, A. H., Edalatkhah, H., Akhondi, M. M., Mirzadegan, E., Kamali, K., Alimoghadam, K., & Kazemnejad, S. (2012). Proliferation and chondrogenic differentiation potential of menstrual blood- and bone marrow-derived stem cells in two-dimensional culture. International Journal of Hematology, 95(5), 484–493. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12185-012-1067-0
- Liu, Y., Niu, R., Li, W., Lin, J., Stamm, C., Steinhoff, G., & Ma, N. (2019). Therapeutic potential of menstrual blood-derived endometrial stem cells in cardiac diseases. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences, 76(9), 1681–1695. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-019-03019-2
- Liu, Y., Yang, F., Liang, S., Liu, Q., Fu, S., Wang, Z., Yang, C., & Lin, J. (2018). N-cadherin upregulation promotes the neurogenic differentiation of menstrual blood-derived endometrial stem cells. Stem Cells International, 2018, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/3250379
- Manica, D. T., Asensi, K. D., Mazzarelli, G., Tura, B., Barata, G., & Coeli, R. (2022). Gender bias and menstrual blood in stem cell research: A review of pubmed articles (2008–2020). Frontiers in Genetics, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2022.957164
- Murphy, S., Kochanek, K., Xu, J., & Arias, E. (2024). Mortality in the United States, 2023 key findings data from the national vital statistics system. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db521.pdf
- Musiał-Wysocka, A., Kot, M., & Majka, M. (2019). The pros and cons of mesenchymal stem cell-based therapies. Cell Transplantation, 28(7), 801–812. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963689719837897